Liming of Acidified Surface Waters

Acidification is one of the most serious environmental problems, especially in Sweden, which suffers most from the consequences of acid rain. Besides international negotiations to reduce sulphur emissions - 85% of the acid load on Sweden can be traced to emissions from outside Sweden - the Swedish Government has employed large-scale operative liming activities to counteract acidification of surface waters. The scientific results show that - although acidification cannot be solved by liming - the measures taken resulted in substantially improved conditions in around 8,000 Swedish lakes and watercourses, and other countries affected by acidification may also profit from the Swedish experience.

Zusammenfassung
"I found the book very informative and the style easy to read. There is a large bibliography accompanying each chapter and the wealth of practical data should make it a useful reference work for those interested or involved in the liming of lakes or streams." Environmental Pollution

Inhalt
1 Liming of surface waters in Sweden a synthesis.- Summary.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. From trial programme to large-scale liming.- 1.2. Previous documentation of liming activities in Sweden.- 1.3. The aims of the synthesis and the target group.- 1.4. Liming practices in other countries.- 2. Acidification loss of biological diversity and fish catch.- 3. Liming a part of the Swedish strategy to counteract acidificatioation.- 3.1. Strategy.- 3.2. For how long is liming necessary?.- 3.3. Alternatives and complementary strategies.- 4. Aims and accomplishment.- 4.1. Aims.- 4.2. Extent and accomplishment.- 4.3. Strategies, methods and liming agents.- 5. The effects of liming.- 5.1. Desirable and undesirable effects.- 5.2. Water quality.- 5.3. Biology.- 5.4. Mercury in fish.- 5.5. Socio-economic consequences.- 6. Will liming restore ecosystems?.- 7. Complementary measures.- 8. Lack of knowledge and research needed.- 8.1. Ecological and socio-economic effects.- 8.2. Strategy and methodology.- 9. Conclusions.- 9.1. Overall conclusions.- 9.2. Recommendations for liming of lakes and water-courses.- 9.3. Concluding remarks.- 10. Acknowledgements.- 11. References.- 2 Acidification of lakes and watercourses in a global perspective.- Summary.- 1. Acidification: a complex problem.- 2. Acidification in the aquatic environment.- 3. Causes of acidification.- 4. How much can the environment withstand?.- 5. Outlook and future action.- 6. References.- 3 Acidification of Swedish freshwaters.- Summary 53.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Acidifying load.- 3. The extent of acidification.- 4. Biological impact.- 4.1. Biodiversity.- 4.2. Causes of changes in flora and fauna.- 4.3. Decomposition.- 4.4. Human health.- 5. Necessary action and research.- 6. References.- 4 Strategies and methods forfreshwater liming.- Summary.- 1. Introduction.- 2. History.- 3. The accumulated liming requirements for soil and water.- 4. Purpose and aims.- 5. Criteria for state grants.- 6. Liming organization.- 6.1. Liming plans and application.- 6.2. Monitoring of effects.- 6.3. Staff.- 6.4. Changes in the liming grant.- 6.5. Extent of liming.- 7. Liming strategies and methods.- 7.1. Strategies.- 7.2. Methods.- 7.2.1 Lake liming.- 7.2.2 Wetland liming.- 7.2.3. Solid ground liming.- 7.2.4. Doser liming.- 7.2.5. Stream liming.- 7.2.6. Ditch liming.- 7.2.7. Road liming.- 7.2.8. Lime precipitation in wastewater treatment plants.- 8. Liming agents and fractions.- 8.1. Agents.- 8.2. Fractions of limestone and dolomite.- 8.3. Quality control of lake lime.- 9. Doses of lime and other neutralizing agents.- 9.1. Lime dissolution rates.- 9.2. Dosage recommendations.- 10. Cost.- 11. Complementary methods.- 12. References.- 5 The effects of liming on water chemistry.- Summar.- 1. Introductio.- 1.1. Materia.- 2. Primary effects of liming.- 2.1. Primary water chemistry reactions.- 2.2. Acidic episodes.- 2.3. Lake liming.- 2.3.1. Whole-lake liming.- 2.3.2. Littoral liming.- 2.3.3. Soda.- 2.4. Liming of watercourses.- 2.5. Catchment liming.- 3. Secondary physical-chemical effects.- 3.1. Physical effects.- 3.2. Effects on water chemistry.- 3.2.1. Organic substances and optical characteristics.- 3.2.2. Phosphorus compounds.- 3.2.3. Nitrogen compounds.- 3.2.4. Trace metals.- 3.2.5. Aluminium.- 3.2.6. Iron and manganese.- 3.2.7. Other trace metals.- 3.3. Changes in sediment chemistr.- 4. Effects of liming in entire aquatic systems.- 4.1. River Fylleån.- 4.2. River Enningdalsälven.- 5. Effects of liming activities on water chemistry.- 5.1. Comparisons between limed and non-limed waters.- 5.2.Comparison with results from model calculations.- 6. Acknowledgements.- 7. References.- 6 The effects of liming on microbial activity and the decomposition of organic material.- Summary.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Bacterial density and microbial biomass.- 3. Microbial activity.- 3.1. Microbial activity in the water.- 3.2. Microbial activity in the sediment.- 4. Decomposition of coarse detritus.- 5. References.- 7 The effects of liming on aquatic flora.- Summary.- 1. The conditions for flora in acidified and limed lakes.- 1.1. Acidification.- 1.2. Liming.- 2.Phytoplankton.- 2.1. Impact of acidification.- 2.2. Number of species and composition of species after liming.- 2.2.1. Clear-water lakes.- 2.2.2. Humic lakes.- 2.3. Biomass and primary production after liming.- 3. Epiphytic algae.- 3.1. Impact of acidification.- 3.2. Number and composition of species.- 3.3. Biomass and abundance.- 4. Macrophytes.- 4.1. Impact of acidification.- 4.2. Number and composition of species.- 4.3. Abundance and primary production.- 5. Wetland vegetation.- 5.1. Impact of acidification.- 5.2. Number and composition of species.- 5.3. Biomass and density.- 5.4. Potential long-term effects.- 6. References.- 8 The effects of liming on aquatic fauna.- Summary.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Lakes.- 2.1. Fish and crayfish.- 2.1.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 2.1.2. Number of species.- 2.1.3. Recruitment and number of individuals.- 2.1.4. The structure of fish communities.- 2.2. Zooplankton.- 2.2.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 2.2.2. Species composition and diversity.- 2.2.3. The structure of the zooplankton community.- 2.3. Benthic fauna and pelagic insects.- 2.3.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 2.3.2. Composition of species and number of species.- 2.3.3.Abundance.- 2.4. Birds.- 2.4.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 2.4.2. The effects of liming.- 2.5. Frogs.- 2.5.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 2.5.2. The effects of liming.- 3. Running waters.- 3.1. Fish.- 3.1.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 3.1.2. Number of species.- 3.1.3. Recruitment and number of individuals.- 3.1.4. Growth and production of individuals.- 3.1.5. The structure of fish communities.- 3.2. Benthic fauna.- 3.2.1. Background the impact of acidification.- 3.2.2. Number of species and density.- 3.2.3. Functional groups.- 4. Can the original fauna be restored after liming?.- 5. Factors affecting the post-liming development of fauna.- 5.1. Water chemistry.- 5.2. Liming strategies.- 5.3. Recolonization.- 6. References.- 9 The impact of liming on aquatic communities.- Summary.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Communities of organisms.- 3. Short-term and long-term effects of liming.- 4. Post-liming abiotic factors.- 5. Acidification and community development.- 6. Productivity and community structure.- 7. Biotic factors: competition as a controlling factor.- 8. Bottom-up effects.- 9. Top-down effects.- 10. Predation and changeable environments.- 11. Parasites and disease: an unknown factor?.- 12. Stability of post-liming communities.- 13. Trophic levels and food chains.- 14. Can acidified communities be restored?.- 15. Acknowledgements.- 16. References.- 10 Liming strategies and effects: the Lake Gårdsjön case study.- 1. Documentation.- 2. Geographical orientation.- 3. Acidification status.- 3.1. Interactions in the pelagic zone.- 4. Liming strategy an…